英国和法国的政治发展都受到百年战争[注: 百年战争是1337-1453年英国和法国封建君主为争夺法国西南部领地而进行的长达百余年的战争。战争前期法国多次遭受重大失败,国家处于危亡关头。]的影响。在英国,议会的力量增强了,贵族势力的突然增长导致了玫瑰战争[注: 玫瑰战争(又称蔷薇战争;英语:Wars of the Roses;1455年─1485年)是兰开斯特家族(House of Lancaster)和约克家族(House of York)的支持者为了英格],战争到都铎王朝[注: 都铎王朝的家族起源是颇为卑微的。由最初在格温内思郡君主身边谦逊的助手开始,都铎家族逐渐提升并稳固了其皇室地位。格温内思郡君主卢埃林·阿普·约尔沃思及其子孙曾是贵族家庭的顾问、外交官、仆人和评论员。]上台执政才最终结束。法国在路易十一的统治下,皇权得到巩固。路易十一的治国才能,为在国家统一方面取得进一步发展提供了可能性。
Nation-making in Spain was unique, since the ambitions of the monarchy were combined with the religious fervor of a Crusade. In the mid-eleventh century the Christian Spanish states began the Reconquistain earnest, but not until the end of the fifteenth century was the task completed. In Germany, the kings dissipated their energies by seeking to establish an empire that encompassed Italy and Sicily. In the later Middle Ages Germany remained divided and weak; their national unification would not be achieved until the nineteenth century.
君主[注: 君主:统治者,根据不同的地域和时期称谓不同,中国古代称“皇帝”,“王”,其它国家多称“国王”,“女王”,“大帝”等等。-junzhu]的雄心和十字军东征
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